The Art of War: Mastering Siege Warfare

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Video originally published on November 25, 2023.

Imagine the walls of a city, echoing with the cries of defenders and the relentless pounding of siege engines. This is the theater of siege warfare, a brutal dance of encirclement, endurance, and eventual capitulation. From the ancient battlements of Troy to the modern streets of Mosul, siege warfare has been a pivotal force in shaping the course of human history. It is a contest not just of strength and strategy, but of will and endurance, where the lines between military and civilian blur in the crucible of conflict. Today, as urban populations swell and technological advancements reshape the battlefield, understanding the art of siege warfare is more critical than ever. Who will prevail in the battles of tomorrow? Those who master the timeless tactics of siege warfare, or those who falter under its unforgiving pressures? The stakes are high, and the lessons of history are clear: the art of siege warfare is as relevant and deadly as ever.

Key Takeaways

Imagine the walls of a city, echoing with the cries of defenders and the relentless pounding of siege engines.
The art of siege warfare has been a pivotal aspect of military strategy since ancient times, evolving significantly through the centuries to adapt to changing technologies, tactics, and geopolitical landscapes.
Throughout history, armies have employed various methods to surround and isolate fortified positions, with encirclement and blockade being among the most effective.
Battering rams were built to smash through gates or walls, while siege towers could protect a group of soldiers as they approached the top of a castle wall, deposit those troops on the wall, and provide ladders or ramps.
The evolution of siege warfare from ancient times to the modern era has been marked by technological advancements and shifting strategies, particularly in the realm of asymmetric warfare.
Throughout history, siege warfare has exacted a devastating toll on civilian populations, often caught in the crossfire between warring factions.

The Evolution of Siege Warfare: From Ancient Fortresses to Modern Urban Combat

The art of siege warfare has been a pivotal aspect of military strategy since ancient times, evolving significantly through the centuries to adapt to changing technologies, tactics, and geopolitical landscapes. At its core, siege warfare revolves around the contest for control of fortified positions, which have ranged from mighty citadels to humble bunkers. These fortresses serve as bastions of defense, offering protection to the besieged while presenting formidable challenges to the attackers. The earliest recorded sieges date back to the Bronze Age, with one of the most notable examples being the siege of Jericho around 2200 BCE. The biblical account describes the Israelites marching around the city's walls for seven days, culminating in a miraculous collapse. While the historical accuracy of this event is debated, it underscores the enduring fascination with siege warfare. In classical antiquity, sieges became more sophisticated, with the Greeks and Romans developing advanced techniques and machinery. The siege of Troy, immortalized in Homer's epic, is a legendary example, though its historicity is also disputed. However, the siege of Syracuse in 213-212 BCE offers a well-documented case. Roman forces, led by Marcus Claudius Marcellus, employed siege towers, catapults, and other engines of war to breach the city's defenses. Despite initial successes, the Romans ultimately failed due to the innovative defenses devised by Archimedes, including the famous 'death ray' and claw-like grappling hooks. The fall of the Western Roman Empire marked a shift in siege warfare tactics, with fortifications becoming more robust and attackers relying on prolonged blockades. The siege of Constantinople in 626 CE by the Avar–Sasanian alliance demonstrated the effectiveness of such strategies. The Byzantine capital withstood the combined assault, thanks to its formidable walls and the strategic use of the Golden Horn, a natural harbor that facilitated resupply and reinforcement. Medieval Europe saw the construction of vast stone castles, designed to withstand prolonged sieges. The Crusades, in particular, highlighted the importance of siege warfare in capturing and holding strategic locations. The siege of Acre in 1189-1191 CE, part of the Third Crusade, exemplified the brutal and protracted nature of medieval sieges. Richard the Lionheart's forces, aided by the Republic of Genoa, employed siege engines and naval support to eventually capture the city from Saladin's Ayyubid dynasty. The advent of gunpowder in the 14th century revolutionized siege warfare, making fortifications vulnerable to artillery bombardment. The siege of Constantinople in 1453 CE marked a turning point, as the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Mehmed II, used massive cannons to breach the city's once-impregnable walls. This event signaled the beginning of the end for medieval-style fortresses and paved the way for modern fortifications. The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) further illustrated the changing dynamics of siege warfare, with the development of the trace italienne, a star-shaped fortification designed to withstand artillery fire. The siege of Breda in 1624-1625 CE, depicted in Diego Velázquez's famous painting 'The Surrender of Breda,' showcased the strategic and psychological aspects of siege warfare. The Dutch, under the command of Justin of Nassau, successfully defended the city against the Spanish forces led by Ambrogio Spinola, highlighting the importance of morale and negotiation in siege tactics. The industrial age brought further innovations in siege warfare, with the introduction of railways, telegraphs, and modern siege artillery. The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) featured several notable sieges, including the siege of Paris, where the French capital withstood a prolonged German blockade. The development of airpower in the 20th century added a new dimension to siege warfare, enabling the delivery of supplies and the bombardment of fortified positions from the air. The siege of Stalingrad during World War II exemplified the brutal and decisive nature of modern urban combat. The Red Army, under the command of Georgy Zhukov, encircled and trapped the German 6th Army, leading to one of the most costly and decisive battles in military history. The siege lasted from August 1942 to February 1943, resulting in the surrender of the German forces and a significant turning point in the war. In contemporary conflicts, siege warfare has adapted to the challenges of urban environments and asymmetric threats. The siege of Sarajevo during the Bosnian War (1992-1996) demonstrated the horrors of modern urban combat, with civilians enduring a prolonged blockade and artillery bombardment. The siege lasted for 1,425 days, making it one of the longest in modern history. More recently, the Syrian Civil War has seen numerous sieges, such as the siege of Aleppo, where government forces and rebel groups engaged in a protracted and devastating struggle for control of the city. These contemporary examples highlight the enduring relevance of siege warfare in modern military strategy, as well as the humanitarian challenges posed by urban combat. Throughout history, siege warfare has evolved in response to technological advancements, strategic innovations, and the changing nature of conflict. From the ancient walls of Jericho to the modern streets of Aleppo, the art of siege warfare continues to shape the course of military history.

The Art of Encirclement: How Armies Have Surrounded and Isolated Fortified Positions Throughout History

Throughout history, armies have employed various methods to surround and isolate fortified positions, with encirclement and blockade being among the most effective. These strategies aim to cut off supplies, reinforcements, and communication, gradually wearing down the defenders' morale and resources. One of the earliest recorded instances of a successful encirclement is the Siege of Troy, circa 1194-1184 BC, where the Greeks used the Trojan Horse ruse to infiltrate the city after a decade-long siege. However, more conventional methods of encirclement involve surrounding a fortress with a superior force, as demonstrated by the Romans. During the Siege of Masada in 73-74 AD, the Roman legion X Fretensis encircled the mountaintop fortress, constructing a circumvallation wall to prevent any escape or supply from reaching the Jewish rebels inside. The Romans also built a ramp to breach the walls, ultimately leading to the fall of Masada. Blockades, on the other hand, focus on cutting off supplies and reinforcements without necessarily surrounding the entire fortress. A notable example is the Great Siege of Malta in 1565, where the Ottoman Empire attempted to blockade the island fortress held by the Knights Hospitaller. Despite the Ottomans' numerical superiority, the Knights' strategic use of their fortifications and reinforcement from Spanish troops led to a decisive Christian victory. Blockades can also be employed at sea, as seen in the Siege of Gibraltar in 1779-1783, where the French and Spanish fleets attempted to cut off supplies to the British-held fortress. The British, however, maintained a constant supply line, ultimately leading to the failure of the siege. Psychological warfare has also played a significant role in siege warfare, with armies employing various tactics to demoralize defenders. During the Black Death in the 14th century, armies would catapult plague-ridden corpses into besieged cities, such as Kaffa in 1346, to spread disease among the defenders. This tactic, while brutal, could be effective in breaking the will of the besieged. In modern times, psychological warfare has evolved to include information warfare, with armies using propaganda and disinformation to sow discord and confusion among enemy ranks. During the Siege of Sarajevo in 1992-1996, Serb forces employed snipers and artillery to terrorize the city's inhabitants, while also using propaganda to demonize the Bosnian government. This multi-faceted approach to psychological warfare aimed to break the city's resistance and force a surrender. In addition to encirclement, blockade, and psychological warfare, armies have also employed various siege engines and tactics to breach fortified positions. In ancient times, siege towers, battering rams, and catapults were used to overcome defensive walls. For instance, during the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD, Roman forces employed siege towers and battering rams to breach the city's defenses, ultimately leading to its destruction. In the medieval period, trebuchets and other advanced siege engines were developed to increase the range and power of projectile weapons. During the Siege of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottoman Empire used massive cannons to breach the city's formidable walls, marking a significant shift in siege warfare technology. As fortifications evolved, so too did the tactics employed to overcome them. In the Industrial Age, the development of explosive weapons and artillery led to the construction of more fortified and insulated strongholds. During World War I, the Western Front saw extensive use of trenches and bunkers, designed to withstand prolonged artillery barrages. The Siege of Verdun in 1916 is a stark example of the devastating power of modern artillery, with both French and German forces suffering immense casualties in a battle of attrition. In the post-Industrial era, sieges have often focused on urban environments, with armies employing a combination of artillery, air bombardment, and information warfare to overcome fortified cities. The Siege of Stalingrad in 1942-1943 saw intense house-to-house fighting, with both German and Soviet forces suffering heavy losses in a brutal struggle for control of the city. More recently, the Siege of Grozny in 1994-1995 and 1999-2000 demonstrated the challenges of urban siege warfare, with Russian forces employing heavy artillery and air strikes to overcome the well-fortified city defenses.

Mind Games and Starvation Tactics: The Psychological and Physical Challenges of Siege Warfare

Battering rams were built to smash through gates or walls, while siege towers could protect a group of soldiers as they approached the top of a castle wall, deposit those troops on the wall, and provide ladders or ramps that yet more soldiers could use to stream upward. Catapults, trebuchets, mangonels, onagers, and sometimes cannons would be used to bring down walls and create a pathway in, while those tunnels we mentioned before could offer troops a direct path into unfortified areas of a walled city or castle, or give them means to detonate explosives directly under the walls themselves. Once the attack progressed past the city walls, troops often found themselves in a much better position to take on the defenders, who might be starving, sick, worn down, or badly outnumbered. After the age of gunpowder began, and heavy weaponry made its way across the world, attacking a heavily walled fortification was a simple matter of blowing some holes into the walls and rushing through. When fortresses changed their shape, into star-shaped or other oblique designs called trace italienne that would keep artillery from getting a direct hit, attackers were set back, but they also benefited from the far greater costs that a defender would have to cough up in order to build such things. After the Industrial Age, machine guns, heavy artillery, and other advanced weapons largely did away with the utility of large fortifications, meaning that now, an attacker moving on a besieged target was likely to be able to rely on mobile forces—tanks, airplanes, and the like—to be able to overrun besieged positions. One thing that hasn’t changed over time, is the potential for a siege to force a surrender, rather than a final battle—and while siege warfare historically provides an advantage to the defender in direct combat, it provides a massive advantage to the attacker in situations where a surrender does occur. With the attacker usually much better-supplied, a truly successful siege can see an attacking force come out completely unscathed, and see its soldiers return home fat, happy, and significantly richer after their plunder of whatever they were besieging. Defenders, by contrast, may have incurred serious losses even without being attacked, as not only soldiers but civilians inside the siege walls are forced to waste away and die, still waiting for relief. And lastly, we’ve got to talk about the use of siege warfare not just from a tactical perspective, but a broader strategic one. Historically, winning a siege has often meant winning a war, sometimes because a ruler would be holed up inside a national seat of power along with their best troops, or at other times because such a high proportion of a nation’s army was involved in a siege at one concentrated spot, that a war would be all but unwinnable without them. Even when that’s not the case, a siege is generally an immensely important pivot point in a conflict, to the point where other military efforts will largely be about supplying both sides of a siege, causing a breakthrough, counterattacking a besieging force, running a blockade, or resolving battles elsewhere in order to change the balance of a siege. With the immense investment of resources that a siege demands, both for an attacker and a defending force, these sorts of battles usually don’t take place unless both sides believe the battle is worth the risk. Otherwise, the attacking force would simply go elsewhere, or the defenders would abandon their fortifications and fight another day. If a siege is happening at all, it’s because the target involved is so significant to both sides, that it’s worth risking catastrophic defeat for a chance at total victory. The History. Siege warfare has been part of the historical record for nearly as long as there’s been a historical record, with Assyria, Sumeria, Babylon, the Indus Valley civilization, and a range of other pre-2000-BCE civilizations building the sorts of fortifications that would have allowed them to withstand major attack. The Shang Dynasty was capable of building immense fortifications some fifteen hundred years before Julius Caesar walked the Earth, and the Mycenaean Greeks constructed the great Cyclopean Walls no later than 1000 BCE in the late Bronze Age. Israel and Cyprus have yielded archaeological evidence of ancient siege fortifications, and pre-dynastic Egyptian artists included siege equipment in some of the tomb reliefs of that age.

Siege Warfare in the Modern Era: The Impact of Technology and Asymmetric Warfare

The evolution of siege warfare from ancient times to the modern era has been marked by technological advancements and shifting strategies, particularly in the realm of asymmetric warfare. The integration of modern technology has significantly altered the dynamics of siege operations, making them more precise and, in some cases, more devastating. Drones, for instance, have become indispensable tools in contemporary siege warfare. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) provide real-time intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR), enabling commanders to monitor enemy movements, assess fortifications, and plan attacks with unprecedented accuracy. During the Battle of Mosul in 2016-2017, Iraqi forces, backed by a U.S.-led coalition, employed drones extensively to surveil Islamic State (ISIS) positions. This allowed for the precise targeting of enemy strongholds and the minimization of civilian casualties, although the urban environment posed significant challenges. The use of precision-guided munitions (PGMs) has further revolutionized siege tactics. These weapons, guided by advanced navigation systems and often integrated with drone feeds, can strike targets with pinpoint accuracy, reducing collateral damage and enhancing the effectiveness of sieges. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the U.S. military utilized PGMs to target key Iraqi military installations and command centers, demonstrating the capability to disable enemy defenses rapidly and decisively. However, the advent of asymmetric warfare has introduced new complexities to siege operations. Non-state actors and insurgent groups often employ unconventional tactics, such as improvised explosive devices (IEDs), suicide bombings, and guerrilla warfare, to counter traditional siege methods. The siege of Fallujah in 2004, for instance, saw U.S. forces facing a well-prepared and highly motivated insurgent force. The insurgents utilized a network of tunnels, booby traps, and sniper positions to harass and ambush U.S. troops, turning the urban environment into a labyrinth of danger. The battle lasted for several weeks and resulted in significant casualties on both sides, highlighting the challenges posed by asymmetric warfare. Moreover, the psychological dimension of modern sieges cannot be overlooked. Asymmetric actors often exploit the media to gain sympathy and support, portraying themselves as defenders against oppressive forces. During the 2014 siege of Kobani by ISIS, Kurdish fighters, backed by U.S. airstrikes, held out against the militant group for months. The siege garnered international attention, with social media playing a crucial role in mobilizing global support for the Kurdish cause. The siege of Mariupol in 2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, further underscored the role of technology and asymmetric tactics. Ukrainian forces, despite being outnumbered and outgunned, utilized drones for reconnaissance and targeted strikes, while Russian forces relied on heavy artillery and aerial bombardment. The prolonged siege resulted in extensive destruction and civilian casualties, showcasing the brutal realities of modern urban warfare. In conclusion, the modern era of siege warfare is characterized by the integration of advanced technology and the challenges posed by asymmetric tactics. Drones and precision-guided munitions have enhanced the precision and effectiveness of siege operations, while insurgent groups employ unconventional methods to counter traditional military strategies. The psychological and media dimensions of modern sieges add further layers of complexity, making them multifaceted and highly dynamic conflicts.

The Human Cost of Siege Warfare: Civilians Caught in the Crossfire

Throughout history, siege warfare has exacted a devastating toll on civilian populations, often caught in the crossfire between warring factions. The human cost of these prolonged military engagements is immense, with civilians frequently bearing the brunt of the violence, displacement, and infrastructural destruction. The Siege of Kiev in 944 offers a stark example of the brutal tactics employed. Princess Olga of Kiev, seeking vengeance for her husband's murder, laid siege to the Drevlian city. After demanding tribute in the form of pigeons and sparrows, she had her army attach burning sulphur to the birds, which then returned to their nests within the city, setting it ablaze. The resulting inferno destroyed the city and its inhabitants, illustrating the ruthless measures taken to subdue enemy populations. The Siege of Acre in 1291 further underscores the human cost of siege warfare. Approximately 15,000 Crusaders faced a vastly superior Mamluk army, leading to a prolonged and brutal siege. Heavy bombardments and failed counter-raids characterized the conflict, culminating in the Mamluks breaching the city's walls and capturing Acre in a single day. The defenders were massacred, and the city was looted, marking the effective end of European Crusader influence in Jerusalem. The civilian population, already suffering from the siege, endured further devastation as the city was razed. The advent of cannons in siege warfare significantly amplified the human cost. The Battle of Vienna in 1683 saw 150,000 Ottoman forces besiege 11,000 Viennese troops. The Viennese, in a desperate move, leveled the outskirts of their city to eliminate cover for Ottoman forces. The battle featured extensive use of cannons and Ottoman attempts to tunnel under the city walls. The relief of Vienna by a coalition of Polish, Lithuanian, German, and Austrian troops, led by the revered Winged Hussars, lifted the siege but left the city and its inhabitants in ruins. The prolonged Siege of Ceuta, lasting 26 years from 1694 to 1720, exemplifies the endurance and resilience of besieged populations. Several thousand Spanish soldiers held out against tens of thousands of Moroccan troops, enduring countless bombardments and raids. The Spanish sustained their city by sea, ultimately outlasting the Moroccans, who lifted the siege due to internal succession crises. The civilian population of Ceuta endured decades of hardship, their lives forever altered by the siege. In the New World, the Siege of Boston during the American Revolution from April 1775 to March 1776 highlighted the human cost of siege warfare in a colonial context. Following the Battles of Lexington and Concord, New England colonies besieged Boston, Britain's trade and military capital in the region. The siege disrupted civilian life, with residents facing shortages, displacement, and the constant threat of violence. The British evacuation of Boston in March 1776 marked the end of the siege but left a lasting impact on the city's infrastructure and its inhabitants. These historical examples illustrate the profound and enduring human cost of siege warfare, with civilians often paying the highest price. The destruction of infrastructure, displacement of populations, and loss of life underscore the need for greater consideration of humanitarian implications in military strategies and conflict resolution efforts.

Lasting Impact and Strategic Implications: How Siege Warfare Shapes the Course of History

Surrounding the city on three sides, the American colonists were able to blockade the city and get Patriot residents, the ones who supported the revolution, out of the city while allowing British Loyalists on the outskirts to flee to British-controlled areas. The siege saw several skirmishes and major battles, as each side attempted to consolidate the territory it held, but the main active element was the efforts of the colonial Continental Army and its seaborne allies in interrupting British supply and support. Within just over ten months, the Continental Army was able to force a British withdrawal to Nova Scotia, liberating the city of Boston for the Americans. Heading across to Eastern Europe, and particularly the now-annexed, modern-day Ukrainian peninsula of Crimea, we find the 1854 Siege of Sevastopol, an eleven-month siege of a critical port city that meant to devastate the Russian Black Sea Fleet that was anchored there. A joint British and French force besieged the city by land after pushing nearby Russian troops into a retreat, while their fleet blockaded the entrance to Sevastopol’s harbor. In this particular siege, the city withstood months of bombardment while the British and the French repelled multiple Russian attempts at a breakthrough. But the tides turned in the Crimean winter, with the French and British armies on the ground ravaged by disease. When winter gave way to spring, it took French and British forces two attempts to take the city, which was finally razed to the ground and evacuated by the Russians eleven months after the siege began. With Sevastopol, went Russia’s will to fight, and peace was settled upon shortly afterward. In World War I, there is no better example of siege warfare than the siege of Przemsyl, a now-Polish city that was caught up in the violence on the Eastern front between imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary on one side, and Tsarist Russia on the other. A fortress city that was Austria-Hungary’s linchpin of its Eastern defense, Przemsyl was protected by over thirty forts outside the city limits, and in August of 1914, it was a prime target for the Tsarist armies marching westward. Although the town was fortified with over fifty kilometers of freshly dug trenches and over a thousand kilometers of new barbed wire, and defended by well over 130,000 Austro-Hungarians, it was surrounded by a full three hundred thousand Russians. The city got a brief taste of siege in September, which saw the Russians throw themselves against its walls for little to no gain and the loss of forty thousand men, but after the Russians withdrew and later returned in November, the city came under siege again. This time, the Russians opted for starvation and heavy bombardment, and sat back to watch while cholera and ethnic tensions tore Przemsyl apart from the inside. When the Russians decided it was time to strike, several months later, the city was overwhelmed quickly and 117,000 men in its garrison, including nine generals and 2,500 officers, surrendered without a fight. As for World War II, there are two major sieges we’ll discuss, one in each theater of war: Leningrad, in the Soviet Union, and Manila, in the Philippines. In the case of Leningrad, the Soviet city weathered two full years of siege by the German Wehrmacht, enduring incredible cold, widespread disease, and food scarcity so bad that about a million civilian noncombatants would die by the time the siege lifted. For those two years, Leningrad—today known as St. Petersburg—was constantly attacked by air and shelled, and during the winters, the city could only supply itself with a single road path over the frozen Lake Ladoga.

Case Studies in Siege Warfare: Lessons from Suiyang, Mosul, and Mariupol

By the time the siege lifted, the city had resorted to cannibalism, something for which two thousand people would be arrested by Soviet authorities. Then, there was the siege of the bustling city of Manila, where over fifteen thousand Japanese defenders had retreated after being pushed off of the rest of the Philippine islands by American and other Allied forces. On the one hand, this battle was an intense, grinding affair of urban warfare, but on the other, it was in many ways a willful siege, with Japanese troops barricading themselves into many interlocking layers of defense in order to buy time to fortify Japan’s Home Islands against an expected invasion. Over the course of the siege, Japanese forces would commit innumerable atrocities against the city’s civilian population as food, ammunition, and water ran low, destroying massive sections of the city in the process. After a final siege at the city’s innermost ring of defense, the walled fortress of Intramuros, was broken by heavy artillery fire, the city was taken by the Americans, leaving behind a Manila that bore little resemblance to the one that had existed a few months prior. But if anybody around the world had thought that the end of World War II would mean the end of major sieges, they were sorely disappointed just a few years later during the Berlin Blockade, which saw the Soviet Union block rail, road, and canal access to parts of Berlin that were demarcated as being under Western Allied control. Although war had not been declared at that time, and wouldn’t be declared over the course of the crisis, Berlin was put under siege with millions of people still inside its borders. In a testament to how long a siege can be sustained using modern aircraft, American and British forces flew more than 250,000 flights over Berlin over the nearly year-long crisis, dropping over 3,400 tons of supplies every day, and logging a total number of flight miles just short of the distance between the Earth and the Sun. Eventually, the Soviet blockade was lifted, in a modern example of the besieged successfully waiting out their besiegers. And lastly in our list of historical examples, we simply cannot pass over the Siege of Sarajevo, that saw the city surrounded and blockaded by Yugoslavian forces—who fell under Serbian control within the first few months of the siege. It was the longest siege of a capital city in modern history, at nearly four years, and featured some seventy thousand Bosnian defense forces and thousands more civilians inside the city cut off from gas, electricity, and water—often for periods of six months or more at a time. The siege was remarkable for the abundance of snipers, on both sides, running a campaign of terror from within the city, and it was further defined by a wide range of other atrocities and indiscriminate killings of civilians. By the time the siege lifted, courtesy of a NATO air campaign, some forty percent of the seventy-thousand-ish children who had weathered the siege had been shot at directly by snipers, and half had witnessed somebody be killed personally. The Present Day. In the modern day, sieges have unfortunately become no less common among the major and minor conflicts of the world. Far from the fortifications and citadels of old, sieges of the twenty-first century almost always take place in cities, where the product of decades and decades of urban development will afford a far greater degree of cover and insulation than any single military encampment ever could. First, we go to the Siege of Aleppo, during the height of the Syrian Civil War. In this battle, a number of sides warred for control of the city: the Syrian Arab Army under Bashar al-Assad, the al-Nusra Front, the Syrian Democratic Forces, the Islamic State, and a range of other militias. Although the overall battle lasted a span of four and a half years, taking some thirty-two-thousand or more lives in the process, and saw the use of chemical weapons, barrel bombs, intentional airstrikes against rescue workers, and summary executions of civilians, it’s one particular moment that bears discussion: a moment in 2016 in which both the rebel militias, and the Syrian government forces, were able to place each other under siege simultaneously.

The Future of Siege Warfare: Emerging Trends and Challenges in Urban Warfare

The contemporary battlefield has increasingly shifted to urban environments, making siege warfare a critical aspect of modern military strategy. Recent conflicts have provided stark illustrations of the challenges and devastation that accompany urban sieges. In the Syrian city of Aleppo, a complex and asymmetrical battle unfolded between Syrian Army troops and various militias. The siege lasted from July 2016 to December 2016, culminating in the Syrian government's recapture of the city. The battle's peculiar dynamics saw both sides essentially besieging each other, creating a stalemate that was only broken by a decisive government offensive. The Battle of Mosul, which took place from October 2016 to July 2017, exemplified the grueling nature of modern urban warfare. Approximately 10,000 Islamic State militants held out against a coalition force of over 100,000 Iraqi and Kurdish troops, supported by international air power. The Islamic State's use of booby traps, asymmetrical raids, and individual last stands prolonged the battle, resulting in significant civilian and military casualties. The siege's eventual breaking led to the liberation of Mosul but left the city in ruins. The siege of Mariupol during the Russian invasion of Ukraine further highlighted the brutal realities of modern urban warfare. Between March and May 2022, Russian forces besieged the city, defended by a much smaller Ukrainian contingent. The Ukrainians initially held out across the city but were gradually forced to retreat to the Azovstal steelworks. The use of thermobaric bombs by Russian forces eventually compelled the Ukrainian defenders to surrender. These examples underscore the evolving nature of siege warfare in the 21st century. Urban environments, with their dense civilian populations and vulnerable supply chains, make sieges more devastating than ever. The advent of advanced munitions and artillery further tilts the balance in favor of attacking forces. However, the fundamental drivers of siege warfare remain unchanged: the strategic importance of the besieged position to both the defenders and attackers. Whether it is sovereignty, critical assets, or civilian lives, the value of what is being defended ensures that sieges will continue to be a feature of modern conflict. As military strategists look to the future, it is clear that mastering siege warfare in urban environments will be crucial. This will require not only advanced military technology but also innovative tactics and a deep understanding of the unique challenges posed by urban terrain. Policymakers must also consider the humanitarian implications of urban sieges, as civilian casualties and displacement are often the tragic byproducts of these conflicts. The lessons from Aleppo, Mosul, and Mariupol serve as stark reminders of the need for international cooperation and adherence to the laws of war to mitigate the suffering caused by urban sieges. As the world continues to grapple with the complexities of modern warfare, the art of siege warfare in urban environments will remain a critical area of focus for military strategists and policymakers alike.

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Jackson Reed

Jackson Reed creates and presents analysis focused on military doctrine, strategic competition, and conflict dynamics.

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